![]() It is this background against which Janlert and Stolterman state that “interactivity is one of the most commonly mentioned and prominent characteristics of digital artifacts” (Janlert and Stolterman, 2017: 107 cf. Even though there is by far no agreement on what these are exactly (for instance, consciousness, intelligence, or embodiment) and how they could effectively be simulated, the perspectives of sociology, philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science as well as media studies and communication science increasingly came into play in the development of machines capable of interacting with humans. This often is referred to as HMI and ultimately resulted in the still ongoing efforts to simulate essential characteristics and conditions of human communication in machines. However, since the 1980s, following, e.g., the development of the first Brain–Computer Interfaces (BCIs), augmented and virtual reality, ML, or ubiquitous computing, there has been a tendency away from this focus on useful devices toward a more sophisticated understanding of interaction, often referring to some kind of dialogue or communication between humans and machines in a broad sense (i.e., neither are humans only understood as users, nor is the focus solely on computers anymore). Hence, the primary focus was on developing visually, haptically, and linguistically adequate input as well as output devices for effectively using computers (referred to as Human–Computer Interaction (HCI)) Footnote 1. ![]() While there is a strong tradition of (interdisciplinary) exploring the necessary conditions for interaction between humans and computers in informatics, engineering, the humanities, and the sciences, these disciplines were primarily concerned with questions regarding appropriate user interfaces for a long time, i.e., with possible ways of adequately and effectively transferring data and information between humans (understood as users) and computers with the goal of solving certain problems. Recent developments in artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), neuro- and self-tracking technologies, or social robotics have increasingly prompted debates on the conditions for successful Human–Machine Interaction (HMI), as well as its potential implications and consequences for engineering, the sciences, ethics, and politics. ![]()
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